Ethics Glossary
Categorical Imperative is Immanuel Kant's (1724-1804) famous term for an unconditional moral command in contrast to a conditional one that depends on an "if." This categorical duty refers to what ought to be and was expressed by Kant in three different but interrelated ways. First, the Principle of Universality states: "Act only on that maxim (rule) whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law." The second is the Principle of Treating Humanity as Ends in Themselves: "So act as to treat humanity, whether in thine own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end withal, never as means only." The third formulation of the categorical imperative is the Principle of Moral Autonomy: Kant said that although a rational person of good will "is only under obligation to act in conformity with his own will," it is "a will which by the purpose of nature prescribes universal laws."
Deontological Ethics, from the Greek "deon" meaning duty, applies to a family of ethical theories that give moral priority to right means of conduct over good goals or consequences. Some actions, policies or traits are inherently right or wrong without regard to their consequences for human welfare. A good end does not justify a wrong means. Contrasted with Teleological Ethics (consequentialism), this duty-based type of moral reasoning is often referred to as "Non-consequentialism."
Descriptive Ethics is an impartial or neutral description of the values and moral conduct practiced by individuals, groups or societies. As a scientific description of what is, it has nothing to do with what ought to be, that is, with Normative Ethics.
Duty is an obligation to act in a certain manner for moral reasons.
Ethical Objectivism (sometimes called Absolutism) is the view of such thinkers as Aristotle, Kant and utilitarians such as Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill who believe there is a rationally correct moral standard that holds for everyone, everywhere, every time. Ethical Relativism is the denial of ethical objectivism.
Ethical Egoism is a teleological cost-benefit analysis in which one maximizes the expected net (good minus bad) long-range consequences only for one's own happiness (self-interest or well being) or that of one's reference group such as a family or corporation. This theory is also called Enlightened Self-interest or Prudentialism.
Ethical Relativism is the view that moral behavior varies among individuals, groups and cultures (cultural relativism). Since there is no universal standard of morality, there is no rational way to decide who is correct. Ethical Objectivism is the denial of ethical relativism.
Ethics, derived from the Greek "ethos" meaning "way of life," is a branch of philosophy that studies and recommends the fundamental principles and basic concepts of what is considered morally good and bad, right and wrong in human conduct. Some would also include in ethics how we ought to interact with nature and animals. Different areas of ethics such as business, law, or medicine are simply ethics associated with these specific kinds of activity.
Golden Rule is the biblical injunction to do unto others as you would have them do unto you. Some version of the golden rule is found in many world religions.
Good is defined in various ways, but usually includes whatever is pleasurable, desirable, has worth, value, or satisfies some interest, preference, or need. Aristotle distinguished between intrinsic and extrinsic goods. Intrinsic goods are those valued for themselves alone such as health and happiness. Extrinsic or instrumental goods are desirable for the sake of something else, such as money or tools.
Hedonism is the theory that asserts that pleasure (happiness) is the highest good (summon bonum). Psychological Hedonism supports the descriptive thesis that everyone always, as a matter of fact, seeks only one's own pleasure. Ethical Hedonism is a normative theory that says everyone ought always to seek only one's own pleasure.
Justice is divided into different kinds. Aristotle said it basically means to give people what is due them. What is due them is the debatable issue. Various areas of what is due people can be divided into the following four kinds of justice. First, "Substantive Justice" calls for as much equal and compatible freedom as possible, such as those freedoms (rights) essential for protecting and developing one's potentialities and destiny. Second, "Procedural Justice" demands impartial and consistent treatment, equal opportunity and fair rules with due process. Next, "Distributive Justice" refers to fairness in dispensing society's benefits and burdens in a manner that provides for dignity and subsistence for all citizens. Finally, "Compensatory Justice" involves reparations for previous wrongs.
Moral Point of View means that in arriving at moral decisions one is willing, for example, to use reason in the careful pursuit of relevant facts and principles and to treat all persons affected with respect as having special dignity and worth.
Morality, or morals, refers to observable conduct and behavior patterns actually practiced in a society. Many people speak of morals and ethics interchangeably. When a difference is made by philosophers, morality and morals refer to conduct in place, while terms such as ethical and ethics refer to the study of moral conduct or to a normative system of ideal conduct.
Normative Ethics, as contrasted with Descriptive Ethics, recommends and defends norms, principles or standards that ought to be followed for the best moral way to live.
Obligation is something that one ought to do or not do for moral reasons such as keeping just laws, promises, or respecting the rights of others.
Psychological Egoism is a descriptive theory that maintains that as a matter of fact human beings are only capable of acting for their own self-interest. Since everyone is innately selfish, it is humanly impossible to care about anyone except oneself. So-called benevolent acts are only disguised forms of self-love, such as seeking power, recognition, or ways of feeling good about one's self.
Religion and Ethics are often assumed to be inseparable. In one of Plato's dialogues, the Euthyphro, Socrates asks a question that gives two opposing views of the relation between religion and ethics: "Is conduct right because the gods command it (Theory A), or do the gods command it because it is right (Theory B)?" Theory A may be called the "Divine Command Theory." Whatever God commands or forbids is morally right simply because God wills it. In contrast, Theory B is often referred to as the "Theory of Natural Law." Something is not right or wrong just because God says so. God says so because it is part of the natural order and purpose of things which human reason can discover. . No behavior is inherently right or wrong. Right means are determined solely by their consequences. Contrasted with Deontological Ethics (non-consequentialism), the test of all moral laws, duties and rights depends solely on their ability to achieve good ends. Ethics is a kind of moral cost/benefit analysis to discover whatever option maximizes the net expectable good (good minus bad). Contemporary writers call this type of moral reasoning "Consequentialism."
Utilitarianism, a teleological ethical theory that holds that the principle of utility, the greatest good for the greatest number and/or for all concerned, is the one supreme moral principle that ought to be applied to the consequences of all our ethical decisions. The "Good" is defined differently by utilitarians. Act and Rule Utilitarianism are two versions that distinguish betwTheists have no special insight into ethics over atheists. Correct ethical answers are those with the best reasons.
Responsibility is the obligation to do what is morally right and to be accountable for one's actions.
Rights pertain to things for which a person has a just claim, an entitlement of individuals which society should honor and protect.
Social Contract Theory of ethics is an attempt to justify the legitimacy of governments and their legal and moral restrictions. It is reasonable to assume that people would agree, if asked, to give up some of their individual freedom for the collective long-term security of an orderly government. This agreement is called a "Social Contract." The moral assumption is that if you agree to live in a society and accept its benefits, you also implicitly agree and are morally bound to abide by its just laws. Contractarian theorists include Hobbes, Rousseau, Locke, and Rawls.
Teleological Ethics, from the Greek "telos" means goal, end or purpose, gives moral priority to good ends and consequences of human conduct over the means or process by which they are obtainedeen whether the principle of utility should be applied to acts or rules.
Value is whatever has worth or is considered desirable. It is what we prize, esteem, take an interest in or attempt to acquire.
Virtues are predispositions, tendencies, motives, sentiments or habitual attitudes to act in specific moral ways. Kant defines virtues as "duties firmly settled in the character." For example, four classic Greek virtues include wisdom, courage, self-control, and justice. Biblical virtues include faith, hope, and love. The emphasis on virtues supplements rule-centered ethics by highlighting the importance of motives and personal character.
